H.M. is a 67-year-old female, who recently retired from being a school teacher for the last 40 years. Her husband died 2 years ago due to complications of a CVA. Past medical history includes hypertension controlled with Olmesartan 20 mg by mouth once a day. Family history is not contributory. Last annual visits with PCP with normal results. She lives by herself but her children live close to her and usually visit her two or three times a week. Her daughter started noticing that her mother is having problems focusing when talking to her. She is not keeping things at home as she used to, and often she is repeating and asking the same question several times. Yesterday, she had issues remembering her way back home from the grocery store.

Case Study 2 Questions:

Name the most common risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease.

Name and describe the similarities and differences between Alzheimer’s disease, Vascular Dementia, Dementia with Lewy bodies, and Frontotemporal Dementia.

Define and describe explicit and implicit memory.

Describe the diagnosis criteria developed for Alzheimer’s disease by the National Institute of Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association.

What would be the best pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapeutic approaches for H.M.?

500 words, 2 cited sources APA format

Common Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s Disease:

The most common risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease include age, genetics, family history, and certain lifestyle factors. Age is the primary risk factor, with the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s increasing significantly after the age of 65. Genetics also play a crucial role, with specific genes such as the APOE ε4 allele increasing the risk of developing the disease. Family history is another risk factor, as individuals with close relatives who have had Alzheimer’s are at higher risk themselves. Additionally, lifestyle factors such as cardiovascular health, physical activity, diet, and social engagement have been linked to Alzheimer’s risk. Conditions like hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and smoking also contribute to the risk.

Comparison of Alzheimer’s Disease, Vascular Dementia, Dementia with Lewy Bodies, and Frontotemporal Dementia:

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles in the brain, leading to progressive cognitive decline, memory loss, and changes in behavior and personality.

Vascular dementia is caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, often due to strokes or small vessel disease. It typically results in cognitive impairment, including difficulties with reasoning, planning, and memory, and may coexist with Alzheimer’s disease.

Dementia with Lewy bodies is characterized by the presence of abnormal protein deposits called Lewy bodies in the brain. Symptoms include fluctuations in cognitive abilities, visual hallucinations, and motor symptoms similar to Parkinson’s disease.

Frontotemporal dementia primarily affects the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, leading to changes in behavior, personality, and language. It often manifests as early-onset dementia, occurring before the age of 65, and can present with symptoms such as apathy, disinhibition, and language difficulties.

Explicit and Implicit Memory:

Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, refers to the conscious recollection of past events, facts, and experiences. It involves the ability to intentionally recall information, such as recalling the details of a recent conversation or remembering historical facts.

Implicit memory, on the other hand, is the unconscious memory of skills, habits, and procedures, without conscious awareness. It includes skills such as riding a bike or tying shoelaces, which are acquired through repetition and practice.

Diagnosis Criteria for Alzheimer’s Disease:

The National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association developed diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer’s disease, which include:

1. Evidence of cognitive decline from previous levels of functioning.
2. Impairment in one or more cognitive domains, such as memory, language, executive function, or visuospatial abilities.
3. Symptoms that interfere with daily functioning and independence.
4. Exclusion of other potential causes of dementia through comprehensive medical evaluation and testing.

Therapeutic Approaches for H.M.:

H.M., a famous patient who underwent bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to treat severe epilepsy, suffered from profound amnesia following the surgery. Pharmacological approaches for H.M. may include medications to manage symptoms associated with amnesia, such as cholinesterase inhibitors or memantine. Non-pharmacological approaches may involve cognitive rehabilitation techniques, including memory training, compensatory strategies, and environmental modifications to support memory function. Additionally, supportive interventions such as psychoeducation and counseling may help H.M. and his caregivers cope with the challenges of living with amnesia.

• The most common risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease are age, family history, genetics, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression, head injury, and lifestyle factors such as smoking, drinking, physical inactivity, and social isolation¹².
• Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, and frontotemporal dementia are all types of dementia that affect memory, thinking, and behavior. They have some similarities, such as gradual onset, progressive course, and cognitive impairment, but they also have some differences in their causes, symptoms, and brain changes³⁴.
  • Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, leading to neuronal loss and atrophy. The main symptom is memory loss, especially for recent events, followed by language, visuospatial, and executive difficulties. The diagnosis is based on clinical criteria and biomarkers such as brain imaging and cerebrospinal fluid analysis²⁵.
  • Vascular dementia is caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, due to stroke, atherosclerosis, or other vascular problems. The main symptom is impaired executive function, such as planning, reasoning, and problem-solving, followed by memory, language, and visuospatial difficulties. The diagnosis is based on clinical criteria and evidence of vascular lesions on brain imaging⁴⁶.
  • Dementia with Lewy bodies is caused by the accumulation of abnormal protein deposits called Lewy bodies in the brain, affecting neurons that produce dopamine and acetylcholine. The main symptom is fluctuating cognition, with episodes of confusion, attention, and alertness, followed by visual hallucinations, parkinsonism, and rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. The diagnosis is based on clinical criteria and supportive features such as brain imaging and polysomnography⁴⁷.
  • Frontotemporal dementia is caused by the degeneration of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, affecting neurons that produce serotonin and glutamate. The main symptom is behavioral and personality changes, such as disinhibition, apathy, impulsivity, and loss of empathy, followed by language difficulties, such as aphasia, dysarthria, and dyslexia. The diagnosis is based on clinical criteria and biomarkers such as brain imaging and genetic testing⁴⁸.
• Explicit memory and implicit memory are both types of long-term memory that store information for later retrieval. Explicit memory is conscious and intentional, while implicit memory is unconscious and automatic. Explicit memory can be divided into episodic memory, which is memory for personal events and experiences, and semantic memory, which is memory for facts and general knowledge. Implicit memory can be divided into procedural memory, which is memory for skills and habits, and priming, which is memory for associations and stimuli⁹¹⁰.
• The diagnosis criteria for Alzheimer’s disease developed by the National Institute of Aging and the Alzheimer’s Association in 2011 and revised in 2023 are based on the biological definition of the disease, rather than the clinical syndrome. They propose three stages of the disease: preclinical, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia, and use biomarkers to identify them. The biomarkers are divided into two categories: amyloid-beta deposition, which reflects the presence of amyloid plaques, and neurodegeneration or neuronal injury, which reflects the presence of neurofibrillary tangles, neuronal loss, and brain atrophy. The criteria also consider the cognitive and functional performance of the patients, as well as the presence of other possible causes of dementia⁵¹¹.
• M. was a famous patient who suffered from severe anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia after undergoing bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to treat his epilepsy. He was unable to form new explicit memories, but he retained some implicit memories, such as procedural skills and priming. He also preserved some semantic and episodic memories from before his surgery, but not from the years immediately preceding it. There is no cure for his condition, but some possible pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapeutic approaches are:
  • Pharmacological: Cholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine, may enhance the function of the remaining cholinergic neurons and improve memory and cognition. Nootropics, such as piracetam, may modulate neurotransmission and increase cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption. Antiepileptic drugs, such as phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate, may prevent seizures and reduce neuronal damage¹²¹³.
  • Non-pharmacological: Cognitive rehabilitation, such as memory training, external aids, and compensatory strategies, may help the patient cope with his memory deficits and improve his quality of life. Cognitive stimulation, such as music, games, and puzzles, may enhance the patient’s cognitive and emotional functioning and prevent further decline. Psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, may help the patient deal with his emotional distress and depression¹²¹⁴.

 

H.M. is a 67-year-old female, who recently retired from being a school teacher for the last 40 years.